Traditional and contemporary art of Kazakhstan

The periodisation of Kazakhstan’s architecture is based on political and socio-cultural transformations and comprises three main stages: the period as part of the Russian Empire (19th – early 20th centuries), the Soviet period (1917–1991) and the architecture of independent Kazakhstan (from 1991 to the present day).

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, architecture developed at the intersection of traditional Kazakh building traditions, Central Asian Islamic architecture and Russian urban planning. New administrative towns emerged (Verny, Semipalatinsk, Uralsk, Kokshetau) emerged, in which a mixed urban environment took shape, comprising fortresses, Cossack settlements, commercial districts and places of worship. The development of these cities was linked to the transition from a nomadic system to an administratively managed structure, which led to a transformation in architectural and planning principles.

Memorial architecture (kumbez, necropolises, kulpytas, saganats) occupies a special place, reflecting the clan-based structure of society and Islamic traditions. Kumbez are domed mausoleums, important sacred and clan monuments, and they vary regionally: in the western regions, monumental stone structures predominate (Mangistau, Ustyurt), whilst in the central regions brick domed structures are common, and in the south the influence of the Central Asian Timurid tradition is evident. Necropolises take the form of clan cemeteries with an ensemble structure; kulpytas are stone stelae bearing epitaphs, ornamentation and tamgas, whilst saganats are fenced-in grave structures. The ornamentation combines geometric, plant and zoomorphic motifs, whilst epigraphy became an important symbolic element of memorial culture.

Religious architecture also developed. Mosques and madrasas were built from clay, brick and wood and had a rectangular layout oriented towards Mecca. Regional styles stand out: in the south, the Central Asian tradition; in the north and west, Tatar influence; and in the east, timber construction. A striking example of the synthesis of traditions is the Zharkent Mosque, which combines Islamic and Chinese architecture. At the same time, Orthodox architecture in the Russian-Byzantine style was developing, particularly in the cities of Uralsk, Verny and Semipalatinsk; a significant example is the Ascension Cathedral in Almaty, built of timber and possessing a high degree of seismic resistance. Urban architecture of this period is characterised by the emergence of mixed-use developments, including administrative buildings, merchants’ houses, schools, hospitals and commercial premises. The architecture combines classicism, eclecticism, elements of Russian Art Nouveau and local building traditions.

During the Soviet period (1917–1991), architecture underwent three stages of development. In the 1920s and 1930s, Constructivism dominated, characterised by its functionality, simplicity of form and lack of ornamentation. In the 1940s and 1950s, Stalinist Empire style developed, characterised by monumentality, symmetry and the use of national ornamentation as a decorative element, reflecting the idea of ‘the national within the Soviet’. In the 1960s–1980s, modernism and mass standardised construction, based on industrial technologies and microdistrict planning, became established. Prefabricated panel blocks appeared, as did large public buildings—hotels, theatres and palaces of culture—among which the ‘Kazakhstan Hotel’, the Palace of the Republic and the circus in Almaty stand out. Almaty became a centre of Soviet modernism and architectural experimentation.

The main features of Soviet architecture in Kazakhstan are considered to be: ideological orientation, grand scale, industrial technologies, a combination of modernism and national motifs, and the creation of new cities. Political and ideological factors played a central role in shaping the architectural paradigm of the Soviet era, in which modernism served as an expression of industrial progress. Soviet-era architecture in Kazakhstan evolved from avant-garde constructivism to monumental Empire style and on to industrial modernism. It played a key role in shaping modern cities and the country’s architectural landscape. Political and ideological factors played a central role in shaping the architectural paradigm of the Soviet era, in which modernism served as an expression of industrial progress.

A special place in the development of the national strand of Soviet architecture belongs to the architect Toleu Basenov, who viewed Kazakh ornamentation not as mere decoration, but as an important cultural code. Thanks to his work, a tradition emerged in the architecture of the Kazakh SSR of synthesising modernist and classical forms with elements of the national artistic heritage.

Since independence (from 1991), Kazakhstan’s architecture has developed amidst a freedom of styles and a search for national identity. Integration into the global architectural landscape is taking shape, with postmodernism and futurism developing actively, alongside the use of national symbols, including ornamentation and the image of the yurt. Astana has taken on particular significance as the country’s flagship architectural project, featuring landmark structures such as the ‘Baiterek’, ‘Khan Shatyr’, the Palace of Peace and Harmony, the National Museum and ‘Astana Opera’. The capital’s architecture combines global technologies with national forms, shaping a new image for the state. Contemporary trends include polystylism, sustainable development, the integration of nature and the urban environment, the rise of high-rise construction and the development of public spaces.

Almaty retains its status as a cultural centre, combining modernisation with the preservation of its historic environment. One of the city’s landmark architectural structures is the Museum of Contemporary Art (designed by the British firm Chapman Taylor and its successor in Russia, CT Architects). The building is situated close to the city centre, next to the Almaty Theatre, which opened in 2022. The museum’s concept was shaped by its location: on one side lies the panorama of the Alatau mountain peaks, and on the other, the glass towers of the ‘Nurly-Tau’ business centre, one of the city’s tallest complexes. These two ‘contrasting’ elements – the mountain peaks and the glass building – and the difference between them are emphasised by the materials used: one of the volumes is clad in Jurassic limestone, whilst the other is constructed from aluminium. Windows, balconies, terraces, as well as niches and galleries, develop this theme, evoking cave entrances or traces of rock erosion. Another reference to Kazakhstan’s natural landscape is the central atrium – a sort of covered street that runs through the building and cuts right through it from top to bottom, evoking the Charyn Canyon. The ‘relief’ of the space is enhanced by numerous balconies and terraces, which create a smooth transition from the interior to the exterior. Staircases and amphitheatres connect the building to a landscaped green space, where the exhibition continues to unfold: several sculptures and installations by contemporary artists are situated in front of the museum.

Alatau City is a large-scale urban development mega-project in Kazakhstan, located in the Almaty Region. The new city is conceived as an international hub, a centre for innovation and digital infrastructure with special status as a priority development zone. Alatau is a harmonious combination of four modern themed districts, each of which is set to become a centre for innovation and growth. The city’s master plan has been drawn up through to 2050, setting out its long-term goals and directions for growth. By 2030, the first phase of the young city’s key facilities will be completed. Situated along the strategically important ‘Almaty–Konaev’ motorway, Alatau will become a key link in the international transport corridors connecting Western Europe and Western China, as well as the countries of Central Asia, as part of the ‘New Silk Road’ initiative.

The architecture of independent Kazakhstan demonstrates a transition from functional socialist modernism to freer forms; the emergence of new architectural symbols of the state; a synthesis of the national and the global; and a focus on sustainable and liveable cities.

Thus, the history of Kazakh architecture reflects the transition from a nomadic civilisation to a modern, high-tech society. It draws on ancient Turkic traditions, Islamic culture, the urban experience of the Silk Road, and contemporary global architectural practices. This combination makes it a unique phenomenon within the Eurasian cultural sphere.